Thermoset

What is it?
Are plastics derived from oil (petroleum) that go through curing process that could be: a chemical reaction, heat or irradiation; this process is irreversible. The main examples are: resins (epoxy, polyesters are the most common ones), vulcanised rubber, bakelite, urea-formaldehydes among others.
Upcyclable? NO
Compostable? NO
Renewable source? NO
Where does it come from?
The principal producers of plastics are: BASF, Bayer, Braskem, Celanese/Ticona, Arkema, Degussa, Dow, DuPont, Eastman Chemical Company, ExxonMobil among others. The 10 main countries by petroleum extraction are: Saudi Arabia, Russia, United States, Iran, China, Canada, Mexico, Arab Emirates, Brazil and Kuwait.
For more information: British Plastics Federation (http://www.bpf.co.uk)

Thermoplastic

What is it?
Are plastics derived from oil (petroleum) that can be softened and moulded through heat. After cooling those plastics regain their mechanical properties; this process, if performed correctly can be repeated several times. The main examples are: ABS, PET, PE, PP, PS among many others.
Upcyclable? YES
Compostable? NO
Renewable source? NO
Where does it come from?
The principal producers of plastics are: BASF, Bayer, Braskem, Celanese/Ticona, Arkema, Degussa, Dow, DuPont, Eastman Chemical Company, ExxonMobil among others. The 10 main countries by petroleum extraction are: Saudi Arabia, Russia, United States, Iran, China, Canada, Mexico, Arab Emirates, Brazil and Kuwait.
For more information: British Plastics Federation (http://www.bpf.co.uk)

Composite

What is it? Are combinations of two or more single materials; this union creates a unique material with higher mechanical properties than the single materials that compose it. The most common examples are: fibreglass and carbon fibre (fibres and a polymer resin). Depending on the bonding agent (or matrix) these materials can or can’t be upcycled, one important issue is the capacity or not to separate the original materials from the compound. Upcyclable? Depending on bonding agent Compostable? Depending on material selection Renewable source? Depending on material selection Where does it come from? The principal producers of plastics are: BASF, Bayer, Braskem, Celanese/Ticona, Arkema, Degussa, Dow, DuPont, Eastman Chemical Company, ExxonMobil among others. The 10 main countries by petroleum extraction are: Saudi Arabia, Russia, United States, Iran, China, Canada, Mexico, Arab Emirates, Brazil and Kuwait. For more information: British Plastics Federation (http://www.bpf.co.uk)

Bioplastic

What is it? Are plastics derived from renewable biological matter like vegetable oil, corn or potato starch, sugar or bacteria. The main interest in these materials is, besides their renewable origin, their capacity to biodegrade or compost in short time to reintegrate in the natural cycle without side effects. There is some controversy about the human-food source for these types of plastics, because of their economic interest and the possible consequences for poor countries’ population. Upcyclable? YES Compostable? YES Renewable source? YES Where does it come from? There are currently several developments, some of the commercially available found up to day: BASF, Novamont, NatureWorks, NEC, Braskem among others. For more information: British Plastics Federation (http://www.bpf.co.uk)

Steel

What is it? An alloy of iron and other materials, mainly carbon; depending on the amount of carbon (approx from 0.2 to 2%) will determine the “grade” of the steel, meaning that could be harder or softer. Upcyclable? YES Compostable? NO Renewable source? NO Where does it come from? The main iron mines are in China, Brazil and Australia. The main producers of steel are: China, Japan, U.S., India, Russia, South Korea, Germany, Ukraine, Brazil and Turkey. For more information: British Geological Survey (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/products/minerals/statistics.html) and World Steel Association (http://www.worldsteel.org)

Stainless

What is it? Also known as “inox” is an alloy of steel with a minimum of 10.5% of chromium, in lesser content also molybdenum and vanadium. It does not corrode or rust with water. Upcyclable? YES Compostable? NO Renewable source? NO Where does it come from? The main chromium ore producers are: South Africa, India, Kazakhstan, Turkey. The main producers of stainless steel are: TISCO, POSCO, ThyssenKrupp, Outokumpu, AcelorMittal, Nishin Steel, YUSCO, AK Steel, Jindal, Acerinox, Bao Steel, among others. For more information: International Stainless Steel Forum (http://www.worldstainless.org) and British Geological Survey (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/products/minerals/statistics.html)

Aluminium

What is it? It is the third most abundant element on Earth, but is always found in combination with other minerals, being bauxite the main ore. Upcyclable? YES Compostable? NO Renewable source? NO Where does it come from? The main deposits of bauxite occur in: Australia, Brazil, China, India, Guinea, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Suriname. For its production are required large amounts of electricity. The main aluminium producers are China, Russia, Canada, USA and Australia. For more information: British Geological Survey (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/products/minerals/statistics.html) and International Aluminium Institute (http://www.world-aluminium.org)

SoftWood

What is it? Comes from gymnosperms trees (not flowering plants), the main group are conifers, not necessarily softer than hardwoods. This type of wood is source of about 80% of world’s timber production. Some examples are: Araucaria, Cedar, Cypress, Pine, Redwood, Redcedar, Spruce among many others. Upcyclable? NO Compostable? YES Renewable source? YES Where does it come from? (C conifers) 44.81% from the Americas, 33.39% from Europe, 16.99% from Asia, 2.64% from Oceania, and 2.17% from Africa. For more information: Illegal Logging (http://www.illegal-logging.info/index.php), Forest Stewardship Council (http://www.fsc.org) and FAO United Nations (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#VISUALIZE_BY_DOMAIN)

HardWood

What is it? Comes from angiosperm trees (flowering plants). Represent a wide range of wood types, not necessarily harder than softwoods. Some examples are: Applewood, Ash, Balsa, Beech, Cherry, Chestnut, Ebony, Elm, Eucalyptus, Maple, Oak, Okoumé, Teak, Walnut, Bamboo among many others. Some exotic hardwoods like Mahogany are protected by international legislation. Upcyclable? NO Compostable? YES Renewable source? YES Where does it come from? (NC non-conifers) 39.35% from Asia, 26.95% from Africa, 23.43% from the Americas, 9.07% from Europe, and 1.2% from Oceania. For more information: Illegal Logging (http://www.illegal-logging.info/index.php), Forest Stewardship Council (http://www.fsc.org) and FAO United Nations (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#VISUALIZE_BY_DOMAIN)

NaturalFibers

What is it? They are continuous filaments from vegetable origin that can be joined into thread or rope and used in composites, fabrics, paper or felt. The most common ones are: cotton, sisal, jute, flax, hemp, rattan, coconut, bamboo and many others. Upcyclable? NO Compostable? YES Renewable source? YES Where does it come from? The 5 principal producers of cotton are: China, United States, India, Pakistan and Uzbekistan. The 5 principal producers of sisal are: Brazil, Mexico, Tanzania, China and Kenya. The 5 principal producers of hemp are: China, Nord Korea, Spain, Romania and Chile. For more information: FAO United Nations (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html)

Panels

What is it? Using new, discarded or unused wood these panels are commonly found as: MDF (medium-density fibreboard), Particleboard or Plywood. All this panels generally use urea-formaldehyde (a thermoset plastic) as adhesive. Upcyclable? NO Compostable? NO Renewable source? YES Where does it come from? The principal panel producers are: China, United States, Germany, Brazil and South Korea. For more information: Illegal Logging (http://www.illegal-logging.info/index.php), Forest Stewardship Council (http://www.fsc.org) and FAO United Nations (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#VISUALIZE_BY_DOMAIN)

Ceramic

What is it? An inorganic, non metallic material cured by the action of heat, the simplest form comes from clay and there are combinations with other materials like aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide among others. The applications are many: from domestic, industrial, building or medical to aerospace. Upcyclable? NO Compostable? NO Renewable source? NO Where does it come from? With different components and mechanical characteristics ceramics can be found all over the world. High tech ceramics are rarer. For more information: European Ceramic Industry Association (http://cerameunie.eu/)

Glass

What is it? A fragile and optically transparent material, its main component is silica (silicon dioxide (SiO2) around 75%). Upcyclable? YES Compostable? NO Renewable source? NO Where it comes from? The principal silica producers are: United States, Italy, Germany, Austria, United Kingdom, Australia, France, Japan and Poland. For more information: British Glass (http://www.britglass.org.uk/)

Forming

It is understood as all processes used for transforming raw materials into different shapes, such as: blow moulding, thermoforming, rotation moulding, compression moulding, injection moulding, metal spinning, tube bending, roll forming, press braking, CNC machining, wood laminating, composite laminating, and rapid prototyping among others.

Cutting

It is understood as all processes to divide one piece into two or many, some examples: sawing, punching, blanking, die cutting, water jet, laser, photochemical machining among others.

Joining

It is understood as all processes to unite two pieces, some examples: arc, friction, vibration and ultrasonic welding, joinery, gluing, and weaving among others.

Finishing

It is understood as all processes to give a material a protective, aesthetical and/or informative outer layer, some examples: painting, powder coating, anodizing, galvanising, grinding, sanding, polishing, CNC engraving, pad printing, and transfer printing among others.

Assembly

It is understood as all processes to attach the components of a ready to sale product, some examples: screwing, riveting, and pressure fitting among others.

HandLight

1.34 MJ consumed in one minute (Supposing a worker doing manual labour - 0.5 hp around 372 W)

HandMed

13.42 MJ consumed in one minute (Supposing a worker using max 5 hp machinery around 3,700 W)

HandHigh

42.95 MJ consumed in one minute (Supposing a worker using max 16 hp machinery around 12,000 W)

MechLight

72.48 MJ consumed in one minute (Supposing machinery of max 27 hp around 20,000 W)

MechMed

102.01 MJ consumed in one minute (Supposing machinery of max 38 hp around 28,000 W)

MechHigh

134.22 MJ consumed in one minute (Supposing machinery of max 50 hp around 37,000 W)

Truck

All calculations are based on a rigid 18 T truck, with a fuel (diesel) efficiency of 2.89 km/lt (10.93 km/gl).

Train

All calculations are based on an 85 double stack car train (8,107 T cargo in 170 containers) and a fuel (diesel) efficiency of 11.89 km/lt (45 km/gl).

Ship

All calculations are based on Emma Maersk container vessel (158,000 T cargo in 15,000 containers) and a fuel (bunker C) efficiency of 0.007 km/lt (0.026 km/gl).

Airplane

All calculations are base on a 747-400 cargo Boeing (112 T cargo) and a fuel (jet A-1) efficiency of 0.038 km/lt (0.143 km/gl).

Life (years)

It is understood as the total number of years the product is design to perform efficiently its task.

Number of Uses

It is understood as the total number of times the product is design to be used and should withstand in all its life span. It should be accounted by physical stress, environment characteristics, etc.

Petrol (litres)

In some places know as gasoline; it has energy content of 45.8 Mega Joules per kilogram. Here intended as all the litres the product is designed to use in its life span.

Electricity (Watts/Hour)

Measured in watts per hour; is the amount of electricity the product is designed to use in its life span. How to calculate it? For all electrical products power consumption (in watts) should be known; this should be multiplied by the number of hours the product is design to be turned on in all its life span.

Consumers

It refers to the possibility that some parts of the product remain with the consumer and that the product “evolves” and is not fully discarded; besides taking advantage of the adaptability to update itself to the user’s changes in needs or desires.

Distributors

It refers to the possibility that some parts of the product or its packaging remain or return to the distributor and is not fully discarded; besides taking advantage of the adaptability to update itself to the user’s changes in needs or desires.

Producers

It refers to the possibility that some parts of the product remain or return to the producers and is not fully discarded; besides taking advantage to update it to the user’s changes in needs and desires or market’s demand.

Compost

It refers to the possibility that some parts of the product can disintegrate in its original compounds and return to be used by a natural system without any toxic harm or negative side effects.

Landfill

It refers to ending a product’s life in a municipal facility where the product will be buried and never returned into a natural or technical system and in many cases producing toxic side effects.

business1

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business2

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business3

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business4

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business5

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business6

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business7

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business8

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business9

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business10

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers small medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business11

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business12

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business13

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business14

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business15

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers medium: regional level, careful about empowering diversity.

business16

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business17

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business18

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business19

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business20

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business21

Producers large and concentrated: normally not enough local resources, they must be brought from far away; very-high energy demanding; does not promote diversity. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business22

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business23

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business24

Producers medium size and concentration: regional scale, careful to have enough local resources. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers small: distributed, highly diverse, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies.

business25

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors large: high energy demanding; very hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business26

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors small: low energy; close human customer relation, careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

business27

Producers small: distributed manufacturing; use of local resources and handcraft; promotes diversity; careful not to increase complexity in global strategies. Distributors medium: regional level; hard to build close human customer relation. Consumers large concentrated: does not promote diversity “one size fits all”; global scale of consumption.

Biodegradable

Capable of being broken down into innocuous products by the action of living things (as microorganisms).

Renewable

Capable of being renewed, in material resources is understood as the capacity to grow again the resource and with a sustainable management never run out of it; this characteristic applies only to material resources with a biological origin. All minerals and fossil fuels, even if exist in large quantity, are finite, as they cannot be grown again, thus are not renewable.

Trophic Economics

Terminology originally used in fisheries where production is limited by food supply and the relationships predator-prey are quantified and controlled to maintain balance and productivity. This “food supply” is ruled by the biomass transfer and energy flow from one trophic level to the next. In each level, accordingly to the second law of thermodynamics, some losses occur and higher qualities of energy and biomass are created. Lastly, in the natural systems, the population size and distribution is dependant from the amount of resources a specific ecosystem has and self-regulatory processes maintain balance and productivity. Translating this into human economic systems it refers to the creation of business that achieves: Size and distribution accordingly to the resources locally available, empowers diversity by adapting business models to local characteristics and needs without neglecting possible global strategies. Resources are considered capital and not income thus continuous flows of materials are strictly maintained. Therefore, searches economic growth in non-material values and equity in its distribution.

Trophic Models

Simplifying the economic system to producers, distributors and consumers, the Trophic Models display all the possible combinations of size and distribution of businesses. According to each case, they may have different meanings to explore within the characteristics of the Trophic Economics.

Energy

\'Usable power\', a fundamental entity of nature that is transferred between parts of a system in the production of physical changes within the system, and usually regarded as the capacity for doing work. Energy can be expressed in Joules, Calories, and Watt-hours among others.

Mega Joule

One million Joules: 1,000,000 Joules = 1 Mega Joule = 277.77 Watt-hours = 238,845.9 Calories. One Joule is the work required to produce one watt of power per second.

CO2

Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed by two atoms of oxygen and one atom of carbon. In the Earth\'s atmosphere it is present as a gas. It is a fundamental part of the carbon cycle: plants, algae, and cyanobacteria absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and release oxygen as waste. Carbon dioxide is also produced by the combustion of coal or hydrocarbons, fermentations of liquids and human and animal respiration.

Material intensity

Terminology created by the Wuppertal Institute, it is understood as the total amount of material needed to manufacture a product, normally in abiotic, biotic, water, air and soil terms per weight of the finished product.

Solid

It is the amount of abiotic plus biotic material directly or indirectly used in the extraction of raw materials, production, distribution and use of a given product.

Water

It is the amount of water directly or indirectly used in the extraction of raw materials, production, distribution and use of a given product.

Air

It is the amount of air directly or indirectly used in the extraction of raw materials, production, distribution and use of a given product.

Biodiversity

It is understood as the variety of life forms in an ecosystem, biome or the entire planet. In Trophec it is accounted as the total number of higher plants, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish species of a given country. Biodiversity is closely related to climate, tropical regions are richer in species whereas Polar Regions are not. There has been a biodiversity loss in several periods of Earth\'s history caused for different reasons; there is strong evidence of severe biodiversity loss at present due to anthropogenic activity, especially land use change.

Child labour & slavery tier

US Department of State assesses all world countries government\'s response related to avoiding victims been trafficked across their borders who are recruited, harboured, transported, provided, or obtained for forced labour or sexual exploitation. The tier has 4 levels: level 1, countries fully complying with the standards to avoid human trafficking; level 2 countries that do not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; level 2 \'watch list\' and level 3 countries which do not satisfy the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking.

Human Development Index

It is a composite statistic used to rank countries by level of human development; it accounts for life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living of a country. The result is a number from 0 to 1, the latter being the best possible outcome. Is an initiative of the United Nations Development Program.

Gross Domestic Product

GDP is \'the sum of all value added to raw materials by labour and capital at each stage of production, during a given year\' (Daly and Farley, 2004). It is the main index economist use to measure economic growth of a country or region. However, it is not an appropriate measurement of human development.

Gross Domestic Product per capita

GDP per capita is not a measure of personal income, it refers only to an average. In other words it is the national GDP divided by the total population. However, it is not an appropriate measurement of human development. If compared with the Human Development Index it shows that after a certain level of income is achieved there is little to no impact on human development.

Population

It refers to the total amount of residents of a given country. Rural/Urban It refers to the percentage of the total population living in cities or in rural areas. Population growth It is understood as the total births in a country during one year, normally given as a percentage of the total population. Some countries have a negative growth; this means that there are more deaths than births and the total population amount decreases.

Rural/Urban

It refers to the percentage of the total population living in cities or in rural areas.

Population growth

It is understood as the total births in a country during one year, normally given as a percentage of the total population. Some countries have a negative growth; this means that there are more deaths than births and the total population amount decreases.

Energy source

The law of conservation of energy states that energy is not created or destroyed, can only be transformed, therefore if humans are in need of energy, it is necessary to get it from somewhere. The main source of energy our planet has is the sun; the Earth yearly receives 5,700,000 EJ (ExaJoules) in the upper atmosphere. In 2009 humans used 70.53 EJ of electricity. It is important to keep in mind that photosynthesis in land and oceans require an important percentage of solar energy and another percentage is reflected or absorbed by clouds and the atmosphere.

Coal

It is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbon. It forms from dead biological matter after geological processes involving pressure and heat during long periods of time (thousands to millions of years). It is the main source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide as well as one of the main anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide emissions. The principal coal mining countries are: China, United States, India, Australia, Indonesia, Russia, South Africa, Poland, Germany and Kazakhstan. It accounts for 39.3 % of the global electricity production.

Oil

It is a chemical substance naturally found as viscous liquid insoluble with water. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons found beneath the Earth\'s surface. It forms from dead biological matter after geological processes involving pressure and heat during long periods of time (thousands to millions of years). Just like coal it is an anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide emissions. When refined it is a base for a large number of products like: petrol (gasoline), diesel, asphalt, plastics and even pharmaceuticals. Around 80% of the extracted oil is used as fuel. The 10 main countries by petroleum extraction are: Saudi Arabia, Russia, United States, Iran, China, Canada, Mexico, Arab Emirates, Brazil and Kuwait. The top 5 oil consumer nations are: United States, China, Japan, India and Russia. It accounts for 5 % of global electricity production.

Gas

It is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon consisting primarily of methane. Its main use is electricity and heat generation; in smaller amount it is also used as fuel for vehicles and for plastics manufacture. It is found underground normally in the proximity of coal or oil deposits. Similar to oil and coal it forms from dead biological matter after geological processes involving pressure and heat during long periods of time (thousands to millions of years). It is considered to be the cleanest fossil fuel, however it does substantially contribute to anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide emissions. The top 5 producers of natural gas are: Russia, United States, European Union, Canada, Iran and Qatar. It accounts for 21.7 % of the global electricity production.

Biofuels

It is a fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Nowadays ethanol and biodiesel are the principals in use; yet they cover only 2.7% of global transport demand. There are controversies around biofuels due to the next reasons depending on several factors: use of human food as main resource for biofuel production and the possible derived food shortages; land-use change, this could lead to further biodiversity loss and fewer crops for human food demand; the use of fossil fuels for fertilizers and pesticides, thus the further dependency on oil and true savings. The main producers are United States, Brazil and the European Union. It accounts for 1.1 % of the global electricity production.

Waste

The main function is to recover or profit from the energy embedded in all types of waste (agricultural, animal, forestry, industrial, municipal, sewage, black liquor, etc). There are three main ways to achieve this, by thermochemical (combustion), biochemical (anaerobic digestion and fermentation of organic material) and physicochemical (changing or improving chemical properties, normally for combustion). The main concern about these processes is the complexity in waste source and type, the unavoidable greenhouse gas emissions or more complex and dangerous chemicals release like dioxins, the non-renewability of some sources and even more: the total elimination of what could be important assets. It accounts for 0.3 % of the global electricity production.

Nuclear

It is the use of nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. This process is a radioactive decay in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts releasing large amount of energy. There is big controversy around nuclear energy generation due to the environmental damage and health risk of uranium mining, the risks of radioactivity release during operation and the needed ulterior sophisticated treatment and management to isolate radioactive waste from the biosphere for long periods of time between 10,000 and millions of years. It accounts for 13.6 % of the global electricity production.

Hydroelectric

It refers to the use of gravitational force of falling water to produce electric energy. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, once operational produces zero direct waste. The cost is relatively low and hydroelectric plants are flexible to adapt to energy demands. There are negative sides: damming interrupts the flow of rivers damaging local ecosystems, displacing people and wildlife. It accounts for 16.8 % of the global electricity production.

Geothermal

It is the use of energy in Earth\'s core originated by the formation of the planet and from radioactive decay from minerals. Earth\'s centre can reach over 5,000 degrees Celsius (9,000 Fahrenheit), heating the surrounding rocks and water, which flows rapidly to the cooler surface. It is a cost effective, reliable, renewable and produces no waste. It accounts for 0.3 % of the global electricity production.

Solar photovoltaic

It is the use of photovoltaic panels to transform sunlight into electricity. These panels use silicon cells or thin-film of cadmium telluride to create the photovoltaic effect. This technology depends on geographic location due to the solar tilt angle, average insolation, cloudiness and thickness/dirtiness of the atmosphere. The use of solar tracking in the panels increases considerably the energy output as well as cost and complexity. The best commercially available solar photovoltaic panel has an efficiency around 20%. This means only 20% of the solar light can be transformed into electricity. There is some controversy over this technology because of the use of rare and scarce minerals like indium that under current consumption trends will be fully depleted in only 10 years. It accounts for 0.1 % of the global electricity production.

Solar thermal

It is the use of sunlight to create thermal energy. The high-temperature collectors use mirrors and/or lenses to concentrate sunlight in one spot, normally a water tank; temperatures may reach 3,800 degrees Celsius (6,800 Fahrenheit) for later use the formed pressure to power steam turbines. It is a reliable, renewable technology still under development; its main problems are the location of plants in deserts where insolation levels are high but also water is very scarce. It accounts for 0.004 % of the global electricity production.

Wind

It refers to the use of wind kinetic energy to create electricity. In order to generate important amounts of electricity several hundreds wind turbines are needed; offshore wind farms can harness more frequent and powerful winds than land-based ones, besides having less visual impact on landscape. This technology is plentiful, widely distributed, as it uses little land and produces no waste during operation. There is some controversy for damages to birds. It accounts for 1.4 % of the global electricity production.

Tide

It refers to the use of tides to generate electricity. Tides are more predictable and reliable than wind or solar. The main concerns for its development are relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with enough tidal ranges and flow velocities, but new designs in turbine technology are thought to bring it down to competitive levels. It accounts for 0.002 % of the global electricity production.

Northumbria University

It is an academic institution located in Newcastle upon Tyne in the North East of England. Its origins go back to 1880 in three regional colleges: Rutherford College of Technology, College of Art & Industrial Design and the Municipal College of Commerce. Later in 1969 became the Newcastle Polytechnic and in 1992 was changed its status to university with the official name of University of Northumbria at Newcastle. It has two main facilities: the City Campus in downtown Newcastle and Coach Lane Campus. Nowadays it employs more than 3,200 people and offers around 500 study programmes through eight schools: Arts and Social Sciences; Engineering and Built Environment; Design; Health, Community and Education Studies; Computing, Engineering and Information Sciences; Law; Life Sciences; and Newcastle Business School.

School of Design

It has more than 1,600 students from over 65 countries and approximately 120 staff; it operates from two studio locations: the University\'s Newcastle City Campus East and a satellite campus in London. With breadth and depth they use their expertise to explore and expand the role of Design now and in the future, working at the forefront of design practice, design learning and design research. With a heritage of over 160 years, their five academic communities; Fashion, Industrial Design, Visual Communication, Innovation Design and Creative Entrepreneurship have established reputations for award winning design courses, teaching, research, design events and industry collaboration.

PhD

Doctor on Philosophy is abbreviated as PhD or DPhil and is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities. Obtaining this degree certifies the ability of a person to perform serious and rigorous scientific research, which has as its ultimate purpose the expansion of mankind\'s knowledge.